linguistic

LIR RESPATI BUMIDAYA
 

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

THE PROCESS OF COMPREHENSION

1.      In the case of speech comprehension. Cognitive psychologists try to explain the sequence of events that take place from the moment spoken language enters the ear to the moment the listener understands the intended meaning of what was said

2.      a.) The construction

Is the process in which the listeners construct an interpretation of what they hear. It is suggested that there are two approaches to the construction process, namely : syntactic and semantic

b.) Utilization

Is the process in which the listeners utilize this interpretation for further purposes. With regards to the utilization process ,speakers normally talk for a purpose such as to assert beliefs, request help , promise action , express congratulation and ask information ,etc.

3.      a.) The first assumption is that every sentence consists of one or more sentoids or sentence like chuncks and each sentoid normally includes a noun phrase followed by a verb , optionally followed by another noun phrase.

b.) The second assumption says that in a noun phrase ,verb, noun phrase sequnce , the first noun is usually the actor and the seconds the object.

c.) The third assumption says that when a complex sentence is composed of a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses ; the main clause usually comes first.

d.) The last assumption states that sentences usually make sense. Thus, people generally say things that are sensible

4.      a.) syntactic approach

in the syntactic approach listeners are assumed to use the surface structures or features for a sentence ( example : sounds, words and longer constituents ) to make an interpretation

b.) semantic approach

in semantic approach ,listeners are assumed to work from the interpretation of a sentence would be conveying. They work on the assumption that the sentence refers to entities, events,states, and fact.

5.      a.) Reality : The reality principle leads listeners to assume that the speaker is referring to things and ideas in the real world.

b.) Cooperative : The cooperative principle leads the listeners to assume that the speaker is trying to be cooperative with his listeners , the speaker is trying to tell the truth, tell them all they need to know and no more, say things that are relevant , and use sentences clearly and unambiguously.

6.      a.) speech act

is an utterance that serves a function in communication.

b.) propositional content

is the unit of meaning which constitutes the subject matter of a statement and which is asserted to be true or false.

c.) thematic structure

refers to those aspects of sentence structure that relate a sentence to the context in which it is uttered

MEMORY AND COMPREHENSION

1. a.) A sensory memory

            The sensory memories or sensory register act as memory storage for stimuli received through the senses. It holds the stimulus in raw, unanalyzed state for a fraction of a second. A sensory memory exists for each sensory channel : iconic memory for visual stimuli ( the graph ), echoic memory for aural stimuli ( the sound)and haptic memory for touch

     b.) A short term memory

            A short term memory acts as a scratch pad for temporary recall of the information under process.

     c.) working memory

            is a place where phonological content and isolated constituents of a sentence are stored.

      d.) Long term memory

             is stored in networks of schemas. Schemas are mental models of the world.

3. Episodic memory : represents our memory of events and experiences in a serial form. It is from this memory that we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at a given point in our lives.

     Semantic memory : is a structured record of facts , concepts, vocabulary and skills that we have acquired. The information in semantic memory is derived from that in our own episodic memory, such that we can learn new facts or concepts from our experiences .

4. Memorization seems to have different process from remembering. When one is supposed to memorize a poem ,lyrics or a passage ,for example , he should repeat the passage , the poem, or the lyrics again and again.

5. different input also results in different memory, whether people hear it passively, try to memorize it word for word, list for the gist only, or listen for just grammatical errors. Retention interval also results in different memory, for example, did people hear the information a moment ago, an hour ago , or a year ago. Will result in different memory. Lastly, output does results in different memory, for example, whether people try to recall the information verbatim or just the idea or gist surely results in different memory.

7. the basic principles behind memorization are obvious. Passages will be easier to memorize if they are meaningful, grammatical, written in the learner’s own native language and complete with rhyme and meter to anchor the surface structure.

AMBIGUITY AND COMPREHENSION

1)         What does homophone and homonym mean? Elaborate your explanation by providing some example.

Answer: words which have  the same sound but semantically different are homophones or homonyms. They are called homophones when they are pronounced the same but different in form or spelling, such as bear in she cannot bear children when they noisy and she cannot bear children because she is sterile. The use of homophones in a sentence(like the above sentence) may lead to ambiguity. Such a sentence is called lexically ambiguous.

2)         In what condition is a sentence called lexically ambigous? Give example.

Answer : sentences which are ambiguous on the lexical level of word are also called lexical ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity is illustrated in the sentence, She cannot bear children. This sentence may be understood to mean(1) She is unable to give birth to children or(2) she cannot tolerate children, since they are noisy.

3)         Ambiguity also occurs because of thew structure of the sentence, which results in surface structure and deep structure ambiguity. Explain the term and  give examples!

Answer : ambiguity can lso occurs because of the structure of the sentence, for example, (1) the young men and women are standing in a queue and (2) flying planes can be dangerous. These sentences are ambiguous. The first sentences is ambiguous due to its surface structure and the second because of its deep structure.

4)         Describe how the garden path theory works!

Answer : the garden path or one meaning theory of ambiguity states that “ as listeners proceed through a sentence they compute only one reading for each ambiguous construct

Ion. Only if this reading later becomes implausible or contradictory they do go back and compute a second, third, or fourth interpretation” (Clark and Clark, 1977:80).

5)         Describe how the many meaning theory works!

Answer : this theory claims that listeners compute two or more readings for each ambiguous construction and then immediately pick up one on the basis of context. For the above sentence, for the example, the listeners would compute two interpretations for the word punch, namely: a blow and a drink. They then pick the second since it matches with the context. (Clark and clark, 977:81-82).

6)         The marriage between the two theories, garden path and many meaning, results in the mixed theory. Discuss and give example!

Answer : it claims that when listeners encounter an ambiguous construction, they compute multiiple reading. Using the context, listeners then attempt to sellect the most plausible reading. If the ambiguity has not been resolved by the end of the clause, they select one reading and stick to it. If later context contradicts the selected reading, they try to retrieve the surface structure of the prior clauses and compute a new compatible reading. This theory seems to satisfy other researchess working on ambiguity. (Clark and clark, 1977:88-82).

7)         Collect data of ambiguity from students work or textbooks. Classify the data based on the type of ambiguity. Provide the data using the unambiguous sentence that correspond to them.

SPEECH PRODUCTION AND SPEECH ERRORS.

1.         Thus speech production follows at least two processes: planning and execution. Describe these processes.

Answer: Thus speech production follows at least two processes: planning and execution.

In planning and executing speech, speakers go though several program: discourse plan, sentence plan, constituent plan, articulatory program, and articulation. When speaking, speakers take the already for mulated plans and execute them. The actual speech execution is often filled with errors; this is due to the intermixture between planning and execution.

2.         In planning and executing speech, speakers go thorough several processes: discourse plan, articulatory program, and articulation. Discuss each of the process.

Answer: In discourse plan, the speakers decide what kind of discourse they are going to take part in, for example, they are going to tell story, to converse with other people, to give instruction, to describe event or object, and to ask question, etc.

3.         Levelt mentions three main stages of sentence production, describe each of the stage.

Answer: Levelt (1998:5) mention the three main areas of speech production, namely: conceptualization, formulation, and articulation or execution. In conceptualization, the speakers must decide on the message to be conveyed. Very little is known about this stage. The end point is a stage at which the message itself has been decided but it has no linguistic form. It is also called the preverbal message or the message level of representation. This stage is often represented by a thought bubble. In formulation, the speaker must convert their message into a linguistic form. This stage involves lexicalization (selecting the appropriate word) and syntactic planning (putting the words in the right order and adding grammatical elements). In articulation or execution, the speakers must plan the motor movements need to convey the message.

4.         What is meant by ideal delivery in speech production?

Answer : speech which runs quite smoothly is called ideal delivery. However, not all goes well in everyday speech.

5.         Explain some of the sources of speech plan difficulty.

Answer : the three possible sources of planning difficulty are cognitive reasons, anxiety, and socials reasons. The first sources of planning difficulty is called cognitive difficulty. People usually take longer time to produce sentences which deal with abstract things than concrete ones. The second sources is anxiety. Situational anxiety often becomes the sources difficulty in speech plan. When people are anxious they become tense, and their planning and execution of speech become less efficient. The final source of difficulty is social factor. For example, speech plan seems difficulty when conversation takes place under pressure.

6.         What is the major cause of the existence of speech errors?

Answer : Speech errors there are two major sources of speech errors. First, they nare the result of the difficulties the speakers have in trying to plan and execute speech at the same. Hesitations, corrections, and pauses, for examples, are typical speech erroes which are resulted from such difficulties. Other types of speech errors are the result of difficulties the speakers have in forming the articultory program to guide the articulatory muscles in executing sounds.

 SLIP OF TONGUE

1.         Homophones are sound which have the same pronunciation but different spelling. For example, the words to, too, and two are all pronounced /tu/ but they refer to different things.

Homonyms often create ambiguity. Example: to with too

2.         Lexical ambiguity is illustrated in the sentence. Sentences which are ambiguous on the lexical level of word are also called lexical ambiguity.

Example: She cannot bear children

3.         Ambiguous due to its surface structure = the young men and women are standing in a queue

Deep structure= Flying planes can be angerous

4.         Thegarden teory works listeners proceed through a sentence they compute only one reading for each ambiguous contruction. Only if this reading later becomes implausible or contradictory they do go back and compute a second, third, or fourth interpretation.

5.         This theory claims thet listeners compute two or more readings for each ambiguous construction and then immediately pick up one on the basis of on text, for example, the listeners would compute two interpretations for the word punch, namely: a blow and a drink.

6.         The mixed theory clims that when listeners encounter an ambiguous contruction, the compute multiple readings. Using the content, listeners then attempt to selct the most plausibke reading. Example:  knowing that some relativeness could be bothersome,I…

7.         Lexical ambiguity, surface structure ambiguity, deep structure ambiguity.