LIR RESPATI BUMIDAYA
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
THE PROCESS OF COMPREHENSION
1. In
the case of speech comprehension. Cognitive psychologists try to explain the
sequence of events that take place from the moment spoken language enters the
ear to the moment the listener understands the intended meaning of what was
said
2. a.)
The construction
Is the
process in which the listeners construct an interpretation of what they hear.
It is suggested that there are two approaches to the construction process, namely
: syntactic and semantic
b.)
Utilization
Is the
process in which the listeners utilize this interpretation for further
purposes. With regards to the utilization process ,speakers normally talk for a
purpose such as to assert beliefs, request help , promise action , express
congratulation and ask information ,etc.
3. a.)
The first assumption is that every sentence consists of one or more sentoids or
sentence like chuncks and each sentoid normally includes a noun phrase followed
by a verb , optionally followed by another noun phrase.
b.) The
second assumption says that in a noun phrase ,verb, noun phrase sequnce , the
first noun is usually the actor and the seconds the object.
c.) The
third assumption says that when a complex sentence is composed of a main clause
and one or more subordinate clauses ; the main clause usually comes first.
d.) The
last assumption states that sentences usually make sense. Thus, people
generally say things that are sensible
4. a.)
syntactic approach
in the
syntactic approach listeners are assumed to use the surface structures or
features for a sentence ( example : sounds, words and longer constituents ) to
make an interpretation
b.)
semantic approach
in
semantic approach ,listeners are assumed to work from the interpretation of a
sentence would be conveying. They work on the assumption that the sentence
refers to entities, events,states, and fact.
5. a.)
Reality : The reality principle leads listeners to assume that the speaker is
referring to things and ideas in the real world.
b.)
Cooperative : The cooperative principle leads the listeners to assume that the
speaker is trying to be cooperative with his listeners , the speaker is trying
to tell the truth, tell them all they need to know and no more, say things that
are relevant , and use sentences clearly and unambiguously.
6. a.)
speech act
is an
utterance that serves a function in communication.
b.)
propositional content
is the
unit of meaning which constitutes the subject matter of a statement and which
is asserted to be true or false.
c.)
thematic structure
refers
to those aspects of sentence structure that relate a sentence to the context in
which it is uttered
MEMORY AND COMPREHENSION
1. a.)
A sensory memory
The sensory memories or sensory
register act as memory storage for stimuli received through the senses. It
holds the stimulus in raw, unanalyzed state for a fraction of a second. A
sensory memory exists for each sensory channel : iconic memory for visual
stimuli ( the graph ), echoic memory for aural stimuli ( the sound)and haptic
memory for touch
b.) A short term memory
A short term memory acts as a
scratch pad for temporary recall of the information under process.
c.) working memory
is a place where phonological
content and isolated constituents of a sentence are stored.
d.) Long term memory
is stored in networks of schemas. Schemas are
mental models of the world.
3.
Episodic memory : represents our memory of events and experiences in a serial
form. It is from this memory that we can reconstruct the actual events that
took place at a given point in our lives.
Semantic memory : is a structured record
of facts , concepts, vocabulary and skills that we have acquired. The
information in semantic memory is derived from that in our own episodic memory,
such that we can learn new facts or concepts from our experiences .
4.
Memorization seems to have different process from remembering. When one is
supposed to memorize a poem ,lyrics or a passage ,for example , he should
repeat the passage , the poem, or the lyrics again and again.
5.
different input also results in different memory, whether people hear it
passively, try to memorize it word for word, list for the gist only, or listen
for just grammatical errors. Retention interval also results in different
memory, for example, did people hear the information a moment ago, an hour ago
, or a year ago. Will result in different memory. Lastly, output does results
in different memory, for example, whether people try to recall the information
verbatim or just the idea or gist surely results in different memory.
7. the
basic principles behind memorization are obvious. Passages will be easier to
memorize if they are meaningful, grammatical, written in the learner’s own
native language and complete with rhyme and meter to anchor the surface
structure.
AMBIGUITY AND COMPREHENSION
1) What does homophone and homonym mean?
Elaborate your explanation by providing some example.
Answer: words which
have the same sound but semantically
different are homophones or homonyms. They are called homophones when they are
pronounced the same but different in form or spelling, such as bear in she
cannot bear children when they noisy and she cannot bear children because she
is sterile. The use of homophones in a sentence(like the above sentence) may
lead to ambiguity. Such a sentence is called lexically ambiguous.
2) In what condition is a sentence called
lexically ambigous? Give example.
Answer : sentences which
are ambiguous on the lexical level of word are also called lexical ambiguity.
Lexical ambiguity is illustrated in the sentence, She cannot bear children.
This sentence may be understood to mean(1) She is unable to give birth to
children or(2) she cannot tolerate children, since they are noisy.
3) Ambiguity also occurs because of thew
structure of the sentence, which results in surface structure and deep
structure ambiguity. Explain the term and
give examples!
Answer : ambiguity can
lso occurs because of the structure of the sentence, for example, (1) the young
men and women are standing in a queue and (2) flying planes can be dangerous.
These sentences are ambiguous. The first sentences is ambiguous due to its
surface structure and the second because of its deep structure.
4) Describe how the garden path theory
works!
Answer : the garden path
or one meaning theory of ambiguity states that “ as listeners proceed through a
sentence they compute only one reading for each ambiguous construct
Ion. Only if this
reading later becomes implausible or contradictory they do go back and compute
a second, third, or fourth interpretation” (Clark and Clark, 1977:80).
5) Describe how the many meaning theory
works!
Answer : this theory
claims that listeners compute two or more readings for each ambiguous
construction and then immediately pick up one on the basis of context. For the
above sentence, for the example, the listeners would compute two
interpretations for the word punch, namely: a blow and a drink. They then pick
the second since it matches with the context. (Clark and clark, 977:81-82).
6) The marriage between the two theories,
garden path and many meaning, results in the mixed theory. Discuss and give
example!
Answer : it claims that
when listeners encounter an ambiguous construction, they compute multiiple
reading. Using the context, listeners then attempt to sellect the most
plausible reading. If the ambiguity has not been resolved by the end of the
clause, they select one reading and stick to it. If later context contradicts
the selected reading, they try to retrieve the surface structure of the prior
clauses and compute a new compatible reading. This theory seems to satisfy
other researchess working on ambiguity. (Clark and clark, 1977:88-82).
7) Collect data of ambiguity from students
work or textbooks. Classify the data based on the type of ambiguity. Provide
the data using the unambiguous sentence that correspond to them.
SPEECH PRODUCTION AND SPEECH ERRORS.
1. Thus speech production follows at least
two processes: planning and execution. Describe these processes.
Answer: Thus speech
production follows at least two processes: planning and execution.
In planning and
executing speech, speakers go though several program: discourse plan, sentence
plan, constituent plan, articulatory program, and articulation. When speaking,
speakers take the already for mulated plans and execute them. The actual speech
execution is often filled with errors; this is due to the intermixture between
planning and execution.
2. In planning and executing speech,
speakers go thorough several processes: discourse plan, articulatory program,
and articulation. Discuss each of the process.
Answer: In discourse
plan, the speakers decide what kind of discourse they are going to take part
in, for example, they are going to tell story, to converse with other people,
to give instruction, to describe event or object, and to ask question, etc.
3. Levelt mentions three main stages of
sentence production, describe each of the stage.
Answer: Levelt (1998:5)
mention the three main areas of speech production, namely: conceptualization,
formulation, and articulation or execution. In conceptualization, the speakers
must decide on the message to be conveyed. Very little is known about this
stage. The end point is a stage at which the message itself has been decided
but it has no linguistic form. It is also called the preverbal message or the
message level of representation. This stage is often represented by a thought
bubble. In formulation, the speaker must convert their message into a
linguistic form. This stage involves lexicalization (selecting the appropriate
word) and syntactic planning (putting the words in the right order and adding
grammatical elements). In articulation or execution, the speakers must plan the
motor movements need to convey the message.
4. What is meant by ideal delivery in
speech production?
Answer : speech which
runs quite smoothly is called ideal delivery. However, not all goes well in
everyday speech.
5. Explain some of the sources of speech
plan difficulty.
Answer : the three
possible sources of planning difficulty are cognitive reasons, anxiety, and
socials reasons. The first sources of planning difficulty is called cognitive
difficulty. People usually take longer time to produce sentences which deal
with abstract things than concrete ones. The second sources is anxiety.
Situational anxiety often becomes the sources difficulty in speech plan. When
people are anxious they become tense, and their planning and execution of
speech become less efficient. The final source of difficulty is social factor.
For example, speech plan seems difficulty when conversation takes place under
pressure.
6. What is the major cause of the
existence of speech errors?
Answer : Speech errors
there are two major sources of speech errors. First, they nare the result of
the difficulties the speakers have in trying to plan and execute speech at the
same. Hesitations, corrections, and pauses, for examples, are typical speech
erroes which are resulted from such difficulties. Other types of speech errors
are the result of difficulties the speakers have in forming the articultory
program to guide the articulatory muscles in executing sounds.
SLIP OF TONGUE
1. Homophones are sound which have the
same pronunciation but different spelling. For example, the words to, too, and
two are all pronounced /tu/ but they refer to different things.
Homonyms often create
ambiguity. Example: to with too
2. Lexical ambiguity is illustrated in the
sentence. Sentences which are ambiguous on the lexical level of word are also
called lexical ambiguity.
Example: She cannot bear
children
3. Ambiguous due to its surface structure
= the young men and women are standing in a queue
Deep structure= Flying
planes can be angerous
4. Thegarden teory works listeners proceed
through a sentence they compute only one reading for each ambiguous
contruction. Only if this reading later becomes implausible or contradictory
they do go back and compute a second, third, or fourth interpretation.
5. This theory claims thet listeners
compute two or more readings for each ambiguous construction and then
immediately pick up one on the basis of on text, for example, the listeners
would compute two interpretations for the word punch, namely: a blow and a
drink.
6. The mixed theory clims that when
listeners encounter an ambiguous contruction, the compute multiple readings.
Using the content, listeners then attempt to selct the most plausibke reading.
Example: knowing that some relativeness
could be bothersome,I…
7. Lexical ambiguity, surface structure
ambiguity, deep structure ambiguity.
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